Mycelium Link

INTRODUCTION

Inefficiency in the dying process, poor handling,  and insufficient treatment of waste from dyestuff industries has led to toxic dye accumulation and contamination in soil and natural water sources. Over 100,000 commercial dyes exist, contributing to the annual production of over 700,000 tons of dyestuff, of which approximately 15% gets released via wastewater.[1]

Toxic dye discharge harms the ecosystem and human health. 

Not only do toxic chemicals affect water and soil quality in the local environments where manufacturing is located, but also complicates the disposal of products through the creation of “monstrous hybrid” products, which uses synthetic dyes to dye natural fibers which could otherwise be composted.[2]

Textile industry requires a revolution that transitions from synthetic dyes to safer, more natural alternatives, while simultaneously addressing existing pollution.

SYNTHETIC DYE

William H. Perkin discovered the first synthetic dye, mauve, in 1856 after which increasingly sophisticated understanding of chemical processes during the industrial revolution contributed to the exponential creation of synthetic dyes and pigments.[3] This period of rapid economic growth also created demand for cost-effective, large-scale production of both textiles and dyes.  Synthetic dyes gained popularity because of the range of colors, improvement in colorfastness, and the ability to chemically treat textiles.  However, the impact of industrialization has become apparent not only in the environment, but also among the textile industry workers, who are continuously exposed to toxic dyes, solvents, fiber dust, and carcinogenic chemicals, which negatively impact their health.  

Despite prohibition of approximately 4000 dyes with known toxicity, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity, over 100 are still used in the market.[4] Their effects on human and environmental health is wide reaching. Wastewater discharge from dye and textile industries pollutes waterways that serve as a source of drinking water, such as in India, Bangladesh, and China [6, 7]. These pollutants prevent sunlight from reaching photosynthetic organisms which can disrupt the global food chain and cause lasting negative impacts.[5] 

The persistence of dye pollution results in bioaccumulation of sediments particularly in fish, crabs and other aquatic life, contaminating the global food chain and directly impacting human consumption .   

NATURAL DYE

Civilizations have been experimenting with color found in nature for millennia, using  pigment producing plants, minerals, insects, and microorganisms. The most stable reds used in antiquity are based on the 1,2-dihydroxy-anthraquinone chromophore, which could be sourced from parasitic insects like Kermes vermilio, or the roots of madder plants belonging to the family Rubiaceae.[8]  For example, Vincent Van Gogh used anthraquinone pigment lakes of madder red, prepared by precipitating the dye extract with an inorganic salt like alum.[9]  Red dyes and pigment lakes made from anthraquinones and their hydroxy derivatives have been in use as far back as prehistoric times, and red and purple anthraquinone dyes have been documented in ancient Egypt.[10]

Red dyes and pigment lakes made from anthraquinone and their hydroxy derivatives have been in use as far back as prehistoric times, and red and purple anthraquinone dyes have been documented in ancient Egypt.  

Mushrooms and lichen dye was first mentioned in the Bible (Ezekiel 27:7). “Of embroidered fine linen from Egypt they made your sail, which served as your banner. Of blue and purple from the coasts of Elishah they made your awning.’’[11] Their use persisted through the middle ages. The earliest contemporary recipes come from Miriam Rice’s seminal work “Let’s Try Mushrooms for Color,” published in 1976.[12] Over the next few decades, Rice and a local community of enthusiasts continued to experiment, finding they were able to derive a full spectrum of color from reds to violets.  

Color and hue are derived from a host of factors such as soil, pH, geography, mordant, extraction type, textile variety, whether the mushroom is fresh, dried, or frozen, growth substrate, and water quality. In addition, one species can elicit several different pigments as it progresses through the dye extraction process.

NATURAL DYE CHEMISTRY

 The color in natural pigments is produced via chemical reaction paths called chromophores, which provide electrons paths to bond to oxygen or nitrogen atoms.  Water-soluble dye structures have many hydroxyl groups, while dyes require a strong base (like ammonia) to make them more soluble.  Mushroom dyes (which contain more acid groups) bind to fabric by forming ionic bonds with amino groups on protein based fibers such as wool and silk.  Metal ions from the mordants assist in the formation of these ionic bonds both on the dyes and the fibers.

In natural dyeing, mordants are used to help natural color bind to textiles, improving color fastness and deepening color.  Fabric can be pre-mordanted to brighten the color, using Alum (Potassium Alum Sulfate), in a process called blooming.  Conversely, Iron (Ferrous Sulfate) can be added after dying, which darkens the color in a process called saddening.  Other agents include cream of tartar (tartaric acid) which brightens the color, or Glauber’s Salt (sodium sulfate) which helps prevent streaking. Also playing a large role in color expression is pH, which can be altered with acetic acid (vinegar) creating red, orange, and yellow hues, as well as sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) which increases alkalinity, strengthening blue and violet tones. 

The vast majority of these processes and chemicals are ecologically benign, which is a core value for the subculture of dyers and textile weavers who experiment with and develop them.

FUNGI

Fungal microbes play an essential role in the development of earth’s atmosphere providing a symbiotic link for plants to obtain nutrients from the soil, which helped create a habitable environment.

Fungi have the unique ability to breakdown matter, essential for planet earth health and maintenance.

Fungi have been cleaning up the earth for more than 400 million years, and their role is just as important today as it was back then. Fungi could be the missing link to transitioning away from the use of synthetic dyes in the textile industry and toward the use of natural pigments.

These incredible organisms can potentially clean up the existing textile pollution while also providing

a natural replacement for toxic dyes.

Method I: Boiling (Dye Bath)

Boil fungi color extraction requires a 1:1 ratio dried mushroom to one ounce of wool. Fungi is added to a pot of hot water and boiled 170–180°F for approximately an hour along with the textile.  This allows water-soluble pigment to be freed and then bonded to the fabric. 

Replacing synthetic dyes requires mushrooms that can be grown quickly, economically, and on an industrial scale. While many species meet these criteria, one, Pleurotus ostreatus or “Oyster Mushrooms” are particularly interesting.  Pleurotus ostreatus belong to a greater Division of Fungi known as Basidiomycota or “cup fungi.”  Basidiomycetes grow abundantly on dead wood, forest or grass because they are potent degraders of cellulose[14].  Varieties of this fungus grow around the world producing a spectrum of vibrant colors from pink to orange, gold, neon green, and bluish grey.  “Turkey Tails,” or Trametes versicolor, is one of the most commonly found Basidiomycetes in North America, although variable native species can be found all over the world.  As the name versicolor suggests, Turkey Tails can grow in a variety of different colors generally ranging in browns and tans, but occasionally produce orange, blue or even magenta fruiting bodies[15].

 By utilizing local fungal varieties, fungal dyes produced in certain cities or countries brand their local mycology into an identifying color. For instance, Jack-O-Lantern or Omphalotus olearius, found only in California produces a fluorescent orange fruiting body. The unique derivative dye identifies the provenance of the resulting fabric, making it unique, precious, and local.

This new model for dyeing subverts the placelessness of global textiles and replaces it with one in which color indicates identity and sustainability for both the consumer and the producer.

 Dye Experimentation

The team conducted experiments with Turkey Tails, trametes versicolor, to obtain dyes. As a team, we grew mushrooms at home, purchased dried mushrooms online, as well as foraged locally at a nearby park in Detroit. Both silk and wool, protein fibers materials yielded different tones of tan and brown; however, a few unconventional methods lead to surprising results. By experimenting with multiple extraction methods, the pH, and dye bath contents, numerous colors were successfully obtained.

MYCOREMEDIATION

Fungi, and particularly wood decay fungi, stand out as a promising natural dye alternative because in addition to providing a source of particularly color fast pigment, they can also be used to bioremediate existing dye pollution. It is this ability to replace AND remediate that makes this project not just about the closure and replacement of synthetic dye factories, but the conversion of factories to natural dyeing and centers of mycoremediation.

While they often are found functioning together with bacteria and an array of other microorganisms, fungi are uniquely suited for breaking down some of the largest molecules present in nature [20]. The main function of fungi in the ecosystem is decomposition, which is performed by fungal mycelium. Wood decay fungus secretes extracellular enzymes and acids that break down lignin and cellulose. These natural compounds are composed of long chain molecules of carbon and hydrogen atoms which share a similar structure to many organic pollutants, allowing the fungal enzymes to degrade them.